FEATURE

Literacy and AV

Kathryn Wilson, MA, CCC-SLP, LSLS Cert.AVT®

Amazing strides have been made to screen newborns for the presence of hearing loss and to provide early intervention to
infants and toddlers who are deaf or hard of hearing in the 21st century. The benefits of early identification and early intervention are
well documented. Research suggests that speech, language, and vocabulary outcomes and social-emotional development are significantly
better than for children who are identified later (Yoshinaga-Itano 1995, 2004; Yoshinaga-Itano and Sedy 2000; Yoshinaga-Itano et al. 1998).

In this new era of early identification and early intervention many children are developing communication and language skills in close parallel to their hearing peers. However some children require intensive and specialized intervention to close educationally significant language-learning gaps. It is important to understand the impact of delayed language on academic success and to identify and implement effective home and
school practices for this population.

Achieving Academic Success: Considerations for Children who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing
Kathryn Wilson, MA, CCC-SLP, LSLS Cert. AVT

There is clear evidence from the literature regarding the robust relationship between oral language and success in reading

(Katz et al. 1981; Mann et al. 1984; National Institute of Child Health and Human Development 2005; Shankweiler et al.
1979; Snow et al. 1994; Storch and Whitehurst 2002). It has been said that “spoken language is the engine that pulls the

reading-writing-literacy train.” Children with language delays are particularly at risk for problems related to success in reading
and subsequent academic failure (Ling 1989; Robertson 2000). Simply stated, in order for children who are deaf or hard of hearing to achieve academic success they must be able to read well and in order to read well, these children must develop the requisite spoken language skills. Unfortunately, far too many children are forced to begin the formal reading process before the language gap is closed. The result is often a
student whose language-learning gaps continue to expand and one who finds reading difficult and frustrating.

For children with significant language delays who are at risk of academic failure the development of a long-term, multiyear plan is recommended. This model first introduced by Walker (2004) includes the child’s present level of performance as well as projected rate of progress in language and vocabulary for each year of the plan until the gap is closed. The long-term plan describes school services and the amount of time needed
daily or weekly at school to make sufficient progress toward goals. In addition to changes in school programming and professional
practices the role of parents in closing the gap is critical. A long-term plan also defines parental roles and responsibilities in terms of participation in weekly parent sessions and amount of recommended carryover time outside of the school environment. Subsequent to development of a long-term plan, parents and professionals must implement evidence-based practices that contribute to success in reading and literacy.

Research has demonstrated that reading aloud to children of all ages is the most important factor in raising a reader (Trelease, 2006). It is hard

to imagine any other single practice that yields so many benefits. The following list of benefits from The Read Aloud Handbook authored by Jim Trelease clearly demonstrates that reading aloud is an essential practice for all children and especially those with educationally significant language-
learning-gaps:
• Reading aloud improves vocabulary
• Reading aloud promotes oral language development
• Reading aloud increases attention span
• Reading aloud increases listening comprehension
• Reading aloud increases reading comprehension
• Reading aloud results in increased performance on standardized tests

The Read Aloud Handout is a highly recommended resource for parents and professionals alike to learn more about the benefits, stages,
and strategies for reading aloud on a daily basis.

In summary, the learner must know the spoken version of the language that is to be read and written. Children who are deaf or hard of hearing can and must learn to read well to achieve true academic success. The key is closing the language-learning gap. Two tried-and-true practices for this population include the development of a long-term plan and daily read-aloud. The long-term plan is essential so that all involved in the child’s education understand the end goal and the factors necessary for achieving the goal. Secondly, adopting the practice of daily read aloud is an easy and highly effective method for achieving high levels of language, literacy, reading and writing. We can all contribute to the present and future success of children who are deaf or hard of hearing. Pick up a book and read!

References
R.B. Katz, D. Shankweiler, and I.Y. Liberman. Memory for item order and phonetic recoding in the beginning reader. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 1981;32:474–84.

D. Ling. Foundations of spoken language for hearing-impaired children. Washington, DC: Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf and
Hard of Hearing. 1989.

V.A. Mann, D. Shankweiler, and S. Smith. The association between comprehension of spoken sentences and early reading ability: The role of phonetic representation. Journal of Child Language 1984;2:627–43.

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child Care Research Network. Pathways to reading: The role of oral language in the transition to reading. Developmental Psychology 2005;41(2):428–42.

L. Robertson. Literacy learning for children who are deaf or hard of hearing. Washington, DC: Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing. 2000.

D. Shankweiler, I.Y. Liberman, L.S. Mark, C.A. Fowler, and F.W. Fischer. The speech code and learning to read. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory 1979;5:531–45.

C.E. Snow, P.O. Tabors, P.A. Nicholson, and B.F. Kurland. SHELL: Oral language and early literacy skills in kindergarten and first-grade children. Journal of Research in Childhood Education,1994;10(1):37–48.

S.A. Storch and G.J. Whitehurst. Oral language and code-related precursors to reading: Evidence from a longitudinal structural model. Developmental Psychology 2002;38, 934–47.

J. Trelease. The Read Aloud Handbook. Penguin. 2006.

B. Walker. Mainstream module. Presented at the University of North Carolina–Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC. 2004.

C. Yoshinaga-Itano. Efficacy of early identification and intervention. Seminars in Hearing 1995;16:115–120.

C. Yoshinaga-Itano. Levels of evidence: universal newborn hearing screening (UNHS) and early hearing detection and intervention systems (EHDI). Journal of Communication Disorders, 2004;37:451–65.

C. Yoshinaga-Itano and A.L. Sedey. Early speech development in children who are deaf or hard-of-hearing: Interrelationships with language and hearing. In: C. Yoshinaga-Itano and A.L. Sedey (Eds.), Language, speech, and social-emotional development of children who are deaf and hard-of-hearing: The early years. The Volta Review, 100, 181–211. 2000.

C. Yoshinaga-Itano, A.L. Sedey, D.K. Coulter, and A.L. Mehl. Language of early and later-identified children with hearing loss. Pediatrics
1998;102:1161–71.